Conflict Management Methodology

Extracted Content from Question Files:

PERFORMANCE COMPETENCIES FOR THIS CHAPTER
To understand the definition and magnitude of negotiation
●
“All
To understand that there are limits to what is negotiable
●
the world’s
To identify the components of negotiation performance
●
a stage.”
To identify the steps necessary to develop your effective
●
William Shakespeare
personal negotiating power
1
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
2 Chapter 1

ALL HUMAN INTERACTION IS NEGOTIATION
Whatever the nature of your business, profession, or current pur-
suits, you encounter conflict and you negotiate. Life is filled with
human interaction and human interaction is essentially a negotiat-
ing arena. Other people influence our emotions and behavior, and
we influence the emotions and behavior of others. We participate in
a continuum of perceiving others and forming attitudes toward
people, things, and concepts while others are perceiving and form-
ing attitudes about us.
In the course of our daily business, professional, and personal
lives, we regularly seek to affect the attitudes and behavior of
others. At times we seek approval, recognition, or affection. At
times we seek to cause action by others. At times we seek to gain
the right or privilege to take certain actions ourselves. At times we
seek to obtain money or other tangible value. In our interactions
with friends, family, clients, employees, employers, contractors, ser-
vice providers, professionals, merchants, and business associates, we
use information and knowledge to get what we want. Negotiation is
that process of influencing others in order to get what we want.
We negotiate much more often than we may realize. Effective,
ethical negotiation is not intimidation, nor is it chiseling or trickery.
Rather, effective negotiation is using knowledge of self and others
combined with analysis of information and time, thereby tapping
the power to affect behavior. The application of that knowledge and
information comprises the personal power to win in any negotia-
tion. In effective, ethical negotiation, both sides win. That concept is
merely a restatement of the business tenet that it is not a good deal
unless it is a good deal for all sides.
It is, perhaps, easiest to accept the notion in the foregoing and
come to a definition of negotiation by further considering what ne-
gotiation is not. Negotiation is not a game. Negotiation is not always
a formal process nor in a formal setting. Negotiation is not limited
to business transactions. Negotiation is not conducted solely for tan-
gible things we can see and touch. Negotiation is not simply using
power-over tactics—shouting louder or bullying better. Negotiation
is not a prescribed set of universally applicable maxims or precepts.
That having been said, however, it must be noted that power-over
tactics are sometimes used in ostensible negotiation; and, there are
KEY TERM
indeed, rules and customs often observed in negotiation.
Negotiation is an
Negotiation is the process of interacting with the goal of obtain-
effort to influence
ing agreement or the result you desire.
or persuade.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Defining Negotiation and Its Components 3

It is an interpersonal skill that is not the province of any partic-
ular profession. However, it is extremely important to personal in-
teraction, business and organizational management success, and
leadership.
Negotiation is an art. Negotiation may also be considered
scientific—having principles and methods that are used systemati-
cally through training and experience. Many people believe that ne-
gotiation is difficult and that it is just easier to avoid it or always
compromise their desires. Others believe that if someone would just
tell them the rules they could be effective! There are few universally
applicable rules. The rules that do exist provide only general guide-
lines that must be applied to specific circumstances and specific
individuals.
Negotiation is complex and interdisciplinary. It encompasses
conflict assessment, management, and resolution. Negotiation is
complex primarily because it happens between human beings!
Above all, negotiation is personal and individual. It is subject to,
understood, and effectuated by the same psychological and socio-
logical principles and theories that govern social interactions gen-
erally. Once one understands the application of those principles,
negotiation becomes much less complex and intimidating.
After understanding what it is, it is easy to see the magnitude of
negotiation. Every day in all aspects of our lives we negotiate. Think
of one time today when you tried to influence someone. Perhaps it
was a family member. Perhaps it was a coworker. Perhaps it was
your boss. Perhaps it was a stranger. You may have tried to cause
someone to behave in a particular way. You may have tried to cause
someone to think in a particular way. If so, you were negotiating. Do
you recall a time when you wanted someone to think you not rude?
If you attempted to affect that person’s opinion—to have them
agree with your self-perception—you were negotiating.
As human beings we seek psychological consistency and bal-
ance. We want things to make sense. We want our way. We want to
be satisfied. While there is much to explore in that vein, it will suf-
fice for this chapter to understand that the conflict inherent in the
need for psychological consistency triggers attempts to influence. KEY CONCEPT
That is, it triggers the need or opportunity to negotiate. Have you All interaction is
ever considered that life would be simple but for human beings? negotiation.
The pervasiveness of negotiation underscores its importance.
The good news, however, is that you have ample opportunity to ap-
ply what you learn about negotiation. You may—and should—
practice every day. Improving your interactions generally will also
improve your negotiation effectiveness.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
4 Chapter 1

THE PERSONAL NATURE OF NEGOTIATION
The heart of negotiation may be said to be the heart of the individ-
uals involved. What is commonly referred to as the heart is usually
what makes negotiation feel difficult. Our emotions, temperament,
disposition, and other aspects of our personalities give each of us
unique needs, interests, goals, and perspectives. Our needs and de-
sires invoke our ego and our self-concept as well as our fears. These
attributes, or phenomena, are actually based in the brain, of course.
It is not uncommon for people to believe that they negotiate ef-
fectively on behalf of others while not doing so well for themselves.
Why the difference? We may say the heart or, more appropriately,
the ego is the difference. It is, to a great extent. However, it is proba-
ble that if we are ineffective as our own advocates, we are probably
HOT TIP!
not performing at our maximum effectiveness for others either. Once
Practice
you learn to understand yourself, you will get to the heart of negoti-
negotiation in
ating. It will take some effort but your results will be satisfying.
personal settings.

NOT EVERYTHING IS NEGOTIABLE
It seems common to hear that everything is negotiable. Well, that
is just not true! Would you sell your child or your pet? Would you
compromise the health of your child or your pet? If you said,
“No,” then you see that, contrary to popular statements that
everything is negotiable, it is not! If you said, “Yes,” then recognize
that negotiation requires a minimum of two people and that your
counterpart is likely to hold some things to be nonnegotiable. If
your reaction here is that these examples are extreme, ponder the
issue further. If one has no values, beliefs, or options, then every-
thing might be negotiable. The key here is to identify your per-
sonal ethics, moral code, and values as you consider negotiation
options.
In addition to those abiding factors, each potential negotiation
must be analyzed to determine whether or not the matter should be
negotiated. If there is not a potential for a mutual beneficial ex-
change that leaves the parties better off than not negotiating, then
KEY POINT
the matter should not be negotiated. This principle should become
Identify
clear as you proceed through your study of negotiation and begin
alternatives prior
to prepare for each negotiation.
to negotiating.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Defining Negotiation and Its Components 5

CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS DETERMINANTS OF YOUR
NEGOTIATION PERFORMANCE
Facts and circumstances, including relative power, as well as time
constraints, of course, affect negotiation options and outcomes.
However, our human interaction is affected by who we are and with
whom we interact. Personality and temperament, values and beliefs,
perception, attitudes, style of learning, motivation, way of thinking,
style of communication, approach to conflict, fears, and much more
determine who we are in any human interaction. We are shaped by
our experiences. We often unconsciously adopt the attributes of sig-
nificant others in our life. Each one of us has a unique combination
of attributes that serve as the base for our personal power.
We are not always conscious of these attributes and characteris-
tics or the other factors inherent in negotiation. We must know who
we are if we are to use our strengths. We must know who we are if
we want to consciously develop the attributes we desire. We must
also be aware of certain psychological phenomena that may cause
us to believe things that are not so. Sometimes we suffer from dis-
tortions in our perceptions and thinking that cause us to miss
opportunities and make poor choices in negotiation.

WHAT YOU DO NOT KNOW WILL HURT YOU
In addition to causing poor choices, what we do not know can hurt us
in other, more subtle ways. Even if we are not conscious of our every-
day negotiation interactions, we develop patterns and habits. We are
also subject to what is called social learning (Bandura 1977). We learn
both by observing and doing. In the negotiating arena, this can mean
that we imitate the behaviors of those with whom we have negotiated
previously. We are particularly likely to adopt behavior exhibited by
others that we view as generating a positive outcome for them.
Therefore, if you have often felt like the loser in prior negotia-
tions, you may begin to utilize the same tactics that were used to
gain an advantage over you. There are several problems associ-
ated with doing so. Feeling like a loser reflects a competitive,
gamelike, or win/lose approach. While that is one of the four ap-
proaches available for negotiation, it is usually the most inappro-
priate and ineffective one. Perhaps you felt like your prior
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
6 Chapter 1

negotiations were fair for both sides and you, therefore, have
fallen into a pattern of compromising. While such an approach is
not competitive, it, too, is not usually the most appropriate or ef-
fective approach. Perhaps you have been met in the past with in-
dividuals unwilling to negotiate and now you find yourself falling
into a pattern of avoidance. Obviously, you cannot get what you
want unless you try.
Another problem in copying the negotiating behavior of others
is that you are a different person and those tactics may not work
well for you. The tactics may actually be inappropriate but worked
on you for any number of reasons—lack of preparation, lack of
confidence, fear, the particular situation or circumstances, to name
a few.
These patterns are difficult to change. Until we become con-
scious of our self and our actions, we cannot assess the extent of our
effectiveness. Our level of experience is irrelevant to this quest. A
person who has been negotiating formally for twenty years is not
necessarily being effective. She may have been making the same
mistakes for twenty years! If we get different results for others than
for ourselves, we need to examine why.

COMPONENTS OF NEGOTIATION PERFORMANCE
The components of negotiation performance, then, include person-
ality, approach, style, temperament, perceptions, interests, goals,
needs, values, and powers—of all parties involved. Additional
components include the substantive issues, the nature of the con-
flict, the effects of the conflict, and the alternatives for all parties in-
volved. Components also include the persuasive abilities of all
parties involved.

HOW TO DEVELOP YOUR EFFECTIVE PERSONAL NEGOTIATING POWER
Knowledge of human behavior is essential to achieving effective
negotiation skills. Effective negotiation requires knowledge of self
in all of the aspects noted in the preceding subsections as well as
knowledge of others. You must know yourself before you may
know or understand others. You must become aware of your
thought patterns and how they affect your goals and behaviors. You
must become aware of your behaviors and how you are perceived
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Defining Negotiation and Its Components 7

by others. You must also acquire knowledge of the nature of con-
flict, principles of communication and persuasion, and methods for
gathering and analyzing information. Effective negotiation also re-
quires critical thinking and creativity.
Psychological and sociological theories provide insight into
how we know ourselves and others. The study of psychological and
sociological principles combined with self-assessment and practice
will guide you to increased effectiveness. Practice of your new
knowledge on your own account—where your heart and ego are “It is easier to be
involved—will generate the greatest gain because it is there where wise for others than
you can discover who you are and your greatest fears. Since you ne- for ourselves.”
gotiate every day, use those everyday experiences on your own be- La Rochefoucauld
half to apply your knowledge and practice your skills.
The study of principles of communication and persuasion com-
bined with self-assessment and practice will guide us to increased
effectiveness. The study of conflict combined with an assessment of
our approach to conflict—and practice—will also guide us to in-
creased effectiveness.
Critical thinking requires an inquisitive mind—asking why and
how. It requires openness to options. It requires knowing oneself—
one’s biases, prejudices, and beliefs. It requires challenging precon-
ceptions and assumptions. It requires multifarious, empathetic,
comparative, and integrative thinking. The effectiveness of and the
mutual gain derived in a negotiation correspond with the level of
creativity applied.

A GENERAL PLAN TO DEVELOP YOUR EFFECTIVE
PERSONALIZED NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES
Presented in the following list are fifteen steps that will enable you
to use your personal negotiating power.
1. Practice critical thinking and empathy.
2. Study and understand key principles from psychological,
sociological, communication, and conflict theories.
3. Know yourself.
4. Understand the dynamics of conflict.
5. Know major negotiation styles and temperaments and how to
interact with each of them.
6. Communicate effectively, allowing for differing perceptions,
biases, and prejudices.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
8 Chapter 1

7. Acknowledge cultural and contextual expectations.
8. Understand the dynamics of power.
9. Identify interests and goals.
10. Be assertive.
11. Be persuasive.
12. Be thoroughly prepared and avoid common mistakes.
13. Use tactics that suit you and understand tactics used by others.
14. Know when to walk away as well as when and how to use third-
party help.
15. Know how to evaluate your performance and target
improvements.
After mastering these fifteen items, then you must—
Practice. Evaluate. Practice. Evaluate.
Change?
Practice. Evaluate. Practice.

A BEGINNING
Start working on your critical thinking and self-knowledge by ask-
ing yourself the following two questions.
What do I know?
●
“To be absolutely How do I know what I know?
●
certain about
something, one
Performance Checklist
must know
everything or ✓ All human interaction is negotiation. Negotiation is the
nothing about it.” process of interacting with a goal and encompasses conflict
management and resolution.
Henry A. Kissinger
✓ Not everything is negotiable. Not everything should be nego-
tiated.
✓ The components of negotiation include the individual person-
alities involved, interests, goals, needs, values, perceptions,
power, substantive issues, alternatives, context, communica-
tion, and persuasion. What we do not know about ourselves
and our habits may lessen our effectiveness and inhibit our
development.
✓ Critical steps in becoming more effective in negotiation are to
know yourself, understand the process of conflict and negoti-
ation, control yourself, and do what feels natural for you. De-
veloping personalized negotiation strategies requires critical
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Defining Negotiation and Its Components 9

thinking and creativity, self-assessment, study, application of
knowledge, and practice.

Key Terms, Phrases, and Concepts
Negotiation
Mutual Beneficial Exchange
Unconscious Determinants of Negotiation Performance

Review Questions
Mark each of questions 1 through 5 as True (T) or False (F) and an-
swer questions 6 through 10.
T F 1. All human interaction may be considered negotiation.
___________
T F 2. Negotiation is an effort to influence. ___________
T F 3. Negotiation is an art and a science. ___________
T F 4. Everything is negotiable. ___________
T F 5. Everything should be negotiated. ___________
6. Explain how and why negotiation is not subject to fixed
rules or methods. ___________
7. Why is your personal life a good place to practice
building your negotiation skills? ___________
8. How can your ego interfere with your negotiation
performance? ___________
9. What kinds of things or factors of which you may not
currently be aware may affect your negotiation
performance? Why? ___________
10. List ten components of negotiation performance.
___________

Case 1.1
Assume that you own and operate a business. Your production this
year was based on prior years’ experience. You have been left, how-
ever, with 100,000 unsold units on hand. You have been selling your
product at $5 each and expected the same price for these 100,000
units. You have exhausted all avenues you can think of for dispos-
ing of your excess product. You do not have the storage capacity for
keeping these units in inventory while you continue production.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
10 Chapter 1

This morning a giant retail organization contacted you urgently
seeking the type of product you produce to fill deficits in their
supply. They offer to pay you $3 per unit.

Case Discussion Questions
1. How would you assess whether or not you should negotiate?
Identify the factors you would consider and the overall rule
you would apply.
2. What factors can you readily identify that will affect your nego-
tiation options and outcomes?
3. What unconscious factors might also affect your negotiation
performance?

ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson

PERFORMANCE COMPETENCIES FOR THIS CHAPTER
To learn the four major negotiation styles
●
“There are two To learn how personality affects negotiation style
●
statements about
To assess your natural and habitual negotiation styles
●
human beings that
To learn how to choose the appropriate style
●
are true. That all
To identify steps toward developing effective negotiation
●
human beings are
styles
alike and that all
are different.”
Mark Van Doren

54
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Negotiation Style 55

Your general view of or attitude toward conflict affects your approach
to negotiation. Style is the term used to describe your approach to
a particular negotiation. That style is affected by your general ap-
proach to conflict as well as certain personality characteristics.
Within styles of negotiation we see temperaments, which further re-
fine styles in terms of more specific aspects of interaction. This
chapter is devoted to negotiation styles, and the next chapter ad-
dresses negotiation temperaments.
The first section of this chapter contains four exercises to aid in
assessing your negotiation style. Following those exercises, negoti-
ation styles are discussed along with information for analyzing
your evaluation results. The balance of the chapter addresses mat-
ters of choosing and developing effective negotiation styles.

ASSESS YOUR NATURAL AND HABITUAL NEGOTIATION STYLES
Exercise 4.1
Free Money Exercise
SITUATION 1
Suppose that you and a friend are walking together. A stranger ap-
proaches you and offers to give the two of you one hundred thou-
sand dollars. There are no strings attached. The only requirement,
however, is that you have five minutes to decide how the two of you
will share the money. If you cannot agree within five minutes, no
money will change hands.
What is your impulse in response to situation 1? What is your
concept of fairness? Does fairness enter into your thoughts at all?
Do you offer to split the money equally?
What do you do if your friend objects to sharing the money
equally? What if your friend says that she is in greater need of
money and should, therefore, receive 75 to 80 percent, or all of the
money? What if your friend is in dire need of that amount of money
to pay a debt or to pay for urgent medical surgery? What if you are
in dire need of the money?
Do your thoughts of fairness change in response to changed
facts? Do you begrudgingly take whatever you can get? Do you
adopt an even-split-or-nothing attitude?
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
56 Chapter 4

Make a note of your approach and performance:
_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________
SITUATION 2
Amend the scenario slightly. Suppose a stranger approaches you
individually and says that he has just received a sum of money.
The stranger further tells you that he must give you a portion of the
money in order to keep any of it. The stranger refuses to tell you
the total amount of money.
What is your first impulse?
In situation 2, do you immediately focus on the amount of
money the stranger may be keeping, or is your first reaction to be
happy with whatever amount you receive—even one dollar?
Make a note here of your approach and performance:
_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________
We will revisit your responses later in this chapter. First, it will
be useful to complete the questionnaire in Exercise 4.2. Assessing
your natural negotiation style is a necessary step in developing ef-
fective, personalized negotiation strategies. Following the assess-
ment, you will have the opportunity to consider aspects of your
personality that impact your negotiation style.
Exercise 4.2
Negotiation Style Assessment Exercise
Complete the assessment instrument in Exhibit 4-1. Then proceed
through the chapter. Analysis of the results will be discussed later
in the chapter.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Negotiation Style 57

EXHIBIT 4-1
Negotiation Style Assessment Instrument

You may use the following twenty-eight statements to assess your current negotiation style. You should
undertake the assessment by first entering your responses in column A for your general assessment. Next, and prior
to calculating any scores, cover your prior assessment answers and undertake the assessment four additional times,
each time with a particular person in mind from different aspects of your life as reflected in the definitions for columns
B, C, D, and E. Instructions for scoring and analyzing your results are provided at the end of the assessment exercise.

Use the scale of 1 to 5 that follows in recording your responses.

1 never; 2 seldom; 3 occasionally; 4 very frequently; 5 always.

Column definitions: A: General assessment responding to your overall behavior
B: A professional or business associate
C: A social friend
D: A family member
E: A new acquaintance

Assessment Statements EDCBA

1. Making people happy is a paramount goal in my
interactions.
2. When my ideas differ from others’ ideas, I argue for
acceptance of mine.
3. When the other person says something to which I do
not agree, I say “Maybe you are right” or “I don’t know.”
4. I am not reluctant to share information and expertise
with others.
5. When I have the power to decide, I exercise my options
without extended discussion.
6. When someone disagrees with me, I change the subject
or say “Whatever” or “Okay.”
7. It is important for me to know what others value and need.
8. If someone tells me he or she needs something from
me, I rearrange things to get it to him or her.
9. If I want to pay $100 and the other wants to receive $200,
my resolution is to offer to pay $150.
10. I get uncomfortable when people get upset or disagree
with me.
11. I think that information is power.
12. When someone proposes something different than what
I have in mind, I find out more about that person’s position.
13. When someone calls when I am in the middle of a project,
I stop what I am doing and tend to his or her needs.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

14. I think that most disagreements are contests over
who is correct.

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
58 Chapter 4

EXHIBIT 4-1 continued
Assessment Statements EDCBA

15. When someone gets upset with me for something I said,
I change my statement to make him or her feel better.
16. I find ways to make the other person happy while I still
get my way.
17. I keep things to myself that I think will upset someone.
18. I will go to a restaurant to make the other person happy,
even if I don’t like the food there.
19. I enjoy letting others know the power I have.
20. When someone disagrees with me, I try to find out
his or her reasoning.
21. I think it is advantageous for me when someone is
afraid of me.
22. I try to structure my statements with the goal of winning
the argument.
23. Giving others what they want is compatible with
getting what I want.
24. I do things I don’t want to do in order to keep things
peaceful.
25. I feel bad when I disappoint the other person.
26. I think that both parties should give some when they
disagree.
27. When I propose an idea to which the other person
disagrees, I don’t press the matter.
28. I think that differences of opinion or differences in
what people want provide opportunities that help me.

Negotiation Style Assessment Instrument Scoring
Record your scores by question number and total as indicated in the following chart.

General Assessment from Column A
#3 ___ #6 ___ #10 ___ #15 ___ #17 ___ #24 ___ #27 ___ Style A total ___

#2 ___ #5 ___ #11 ___ #14 ___ #19 ___ #21 ___ #22 ___ Style C total ___

#1 ___ #8 ___ #9 ___ #13 ___ #18 ___ #25 ___ #26 ___ Style AC total ___

#4 ___ #7 ___ #12 ___ #16 ___ #20 ___ #23 ___ #28 ___ Style CC total ___
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Negotiation Style 59

Assessment for Person B, Column B
#3 ___ #6 ___ #10 ___ #15 ___ #17 ___ #24 ___ #27 ___ Style A total ___

#2 ___ #5 ___ #11 ___ #14 ___ #19 ___ #21 ___ #22 ___ Style C total ___

#1 ___ #8 ___ #9 ___ #13 ___ #18 ___ #25 ___ #26 ___ Style AC total ___

#4 ___ #7 ___ #12 ___ #16 ___ #20 ___ #23 ___ #28 ___ Style CC total ___

Assessment for Person C, Column C
#3 ___ #6 ___ #10 ___ #15 ___ #17 ___ #24 ___ #27 ___ Style A total ___

#2 ___ #5 ___ #11 ___ #14 ___ #19 ___ #21 ___ #22 ___ Style C total ___

#1 ___ #8 ___ #9 ___ #13 ___ #18 ___ #25 ___ #26 ___ Style AC total ___

#4 ___ #7 ___ #12 ___ #16 ___ #20 ___ #23 ___ #28 ___ Style CC total ___

Assessment for Person D, Column D
#3 ___ #6 ___ #10 ___ #15 ___ #17 ___ #24 ___ #27 ___ Style A total ___

#2 ___ #5 ___ #11 ___ #14 ___ #19 ___ #21 ___ #22 ___ Style C total ___

#1 ___ #8 ___ #9 ___ #13 ___ #18 ___ #25 ___ #26 ___ Style AC total ___

#4 ___ #7 ___ #12 ___ #16 ___ #20 ___ #23 ___ #28 ___ Style CC total ___

Assessment for Person E, Column E
#3 ___ #6 ___ #10 ___ #15 ___ #17 ___ #24 ___ #27 ___ Style A total ___

#2 ___ #5 ___ #11 ___ #14 ___ #19 ___ #21 ___ #22 ___ Style C total ___

#1 ___ #8 ___ #9 ___ #13 ___ #18 ___ #25 ___ #26 ___ Style AC total ___

Adapted in part from M. A. Rahim and N. R. Mager, “Confirmatory Factor Analyses of the Styles of Handling
Interpersonal Conflict: First-Order Factor Model and Its Invariance across Groups,” Journal of Applied Psychology
80, no. 1 (1995): 122–32.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
60 Chapter 4

Exercise 4.3
A Game
This game will provide further information with which to assess
your natural tendencies and habits in connection with negotiation
style. The game is played with a group of people. A minimum
group size of ten people is preferable. There must be a moderator.
The moderator selects as many numbers as there are people play-
ing and secretly assigns values to the numbers. Each player ran-
domly draws a number out of a hat. The relative values of the
numbers are not known because the values assigned are not
known; that is, no one knows whether he or she holds a high or low
number. The theoretical prize is the value of the paper drawn. But,
in order to win anything, there is one requirement. That require-
ment is to establish a partnership with at least one other player. Any
player who fails to establish a partnership is out of the game. No
one is permitted to show another the paper drawn. It is permissible
to tell another person what was drawn, but there cannot be verifi-
cation of truth by looking at the paper. Each pair or group of part-
ners is to determine its sharing agreement. Partners may agree that
each will collect the amount represented by his or her individual
number, or they may agree to share in any other manner. Each part-
ner must decide with whom to form a partnership, whether or not
to disclose his or her number, and whether or not to believe disclo-
sures made to him or her.
Make a note of your approach and performance in the game:

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________

ANALYSIS OF GAME OUTCOME
Your approach to this game may provide information about your
degree of competitiveness or cooperation in negotiation as well as
your tendencies toward being general or specific in negotiation. In
addition to your self-assessment, you should ask for your partner’s
perceptions of your approach.
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Negotiation Style 61

FOUR MAJOR NEGOTIATION STYLES
In this section, we review the four major styles of negotiation along
with how certain aspects of your personality may affect your ten-
dencies toward one or more of them.

AVOIDANCE
In chapter 3, we discussed avoidance as a potential goal or strategy in
addressing conflict. Avoidance is also a negotiating style. Avoidance is
retreating or withdrawing. It is failing to engage. It may be to ignore
the existence of a conflict in its entirety. Avoidance may be, however,
total or partial. That is, one might seek to negotiate but not be able to
bring oneself to address the substance of the conflict toward resolution.
A major deficiency of avoiding is that it causes missed opportu-
nities and missed benefits. With no engagement, there can be no res-
olution. With avoidance, you avoid getting what you want. The
approach ignores a search for common ground and mutually bene-
ficial exchange.
Behavior that exemplifies the avoidance style includes sulking,
making sarcastic comments, holding in your true feelings, or re-
fraining from talking about a matter. If your general attitude toward
conflict is relatively negative, you may be prone to the avoidance
style in negotiation. If in situation 1 of Exercise 4.1, the Free Money
Exercise, your impulse was to say nothing and let the other person
make the sharing decision, you exhibited avoidance behavior. If
your conduct was similar in Exercise 4.3, A Game, in that you found
it difficult to initiate partnership discussions or did not express your
feelings, you exhibited avoidance behavior.
One aspect of personality that may have some relationship to
this negotiation style is locus of control. If you have a relatively high
external locus of control, that aspect of personality may present ob-
stacles in confronting conflict. If you believe that you cannot affect
outcomes, you are less likely to try. A low level of assertiveness may
also trigger avoidance behavior. Assertion is addressed in depth
elsewhere in this book.

ADVERSARIAL/COMPETITIVE
The adversarial or competitive style of negotiation is a win/lose ap-
proach. Along with this style usually comes difficulty in refraining
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
62 Chapter 4

from engaging at every conflict opportunity. Underlying the com-
petitive approach is a perspective that resources are limited—a
zero-sum perspective. The competitive style may range from mildly
adversarial to extremely aggressive.
A primary deficiency of a competitive approach is that one
party loses. It may be you! Furthermore, a focus on winning or be-
ing correct is likely to cause one to miss information and possibili-
ties that may, in fact, be self-beneficial.
Behavior that exemplifies the competitive style includes making
remarks with no regard for the other’s feelings or position, always
having a retort, refusing to back down, discussing differences in
front of other uninvolved people, belittling the other, using accusa-
tory language and power-over tactics, having no regard for the in-
terests or goals of the other, and manipulation. It is characterized by
criticizing, defensiveness, stonewalling, and contempt on both sides.
This style is self-centered. If this style continues far enough on the
continuum, other behaviors may include trickery and even violence.
A negative attitude toward conflict generally may tend toward
either an avoidance style or a competitive style—or both. You may
avoid when you think you cannot win, and you may engage in
every opportunity for a contest. If in situation 2 of Exercise 4.1, the
Free Money Exercise, your goal was to get your share of the money
without regard to the needs expressed by your friend, you exhibited
a competitive style. If your conduct in Exercise 4.3, A Game, focused
on trying to get the most that you could to the exclusion of consid-
ering options, you exhibited competitive behavior.
If you assess yourself high on the Type A personality character-
istic of competitiveness, you may be prone to the competitive style
of negotiation. Other personality characteristics that may influence
a tendency toward this style include a high need for personal
power, a high need for achievement, and a high level of Machiavel-
lianism. Another flag for your consideration is your assessment on
emotional stability. Those with a low level of emotional stability are
more likely to lose their temper and lose control generally. A loss of
control and a high level of anxiety may make things ripe for adopt-
ing a win/lose approach.

ACCOMMODATING/COMPROMISING
The accommodating or compromising negotiation style is to give up
part of what you want at the request of the other. It is a middle-of-
the road approach focused on meeting the needs of others without
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Negotiation Style 63

totally giving up one’s own needs. It can be closely related to avoid- “Compromise
ance; that is, giving in without considering other, more creative op- makes a good
tions is to avoid negotiating further. Compromising is giving in. It
umbrella, but a poor
is distinctly different than collaborating, which is explained in the
roof; it is a
next section of this chapter. It is not unwise to prepare a compro-
temporary
mise position as a backup, provided that such position is neverthe-
expedient, often
less better than your nonnegotiated alternatives.
wise in party
Behavior that exemplifies this style is splitting the difference
politics, almost sure
and agreeing openly while being internally dissatisfied. If your nat-
to be unwise in
ural style of negotiation tends to be compromising, you may have a
relatively neutral view toward conflict generally. If in Exercise 4.1, statesmanship.”
the Free Money Exercise, your impulse was to share equally or to al- Lowell
low your friend in need to take the greater share, you exhibited the
compromising negotiation style. If your conduct was similar to that
in Exercise 4.3, A Game, you exhibited avoidance behavior.
Two aspects of personality that may be related to this style are
the need for affiliation and an external locus of control. Those with
a high need for affiliation are drawn to satisfy the needs of others.
A very high external locus of control combined with a high need for
affiliation would be consistent with wanting to please and believing
that one could not do better anyway.

COOPERATIVE/COLLABORATIVE
The difference between compromise and cooperative or collaborative
negotiation is that in compromise you are giving up something while
in cooperation you are finding a way to get the other person and
yourself what you both want. This type of negotiation is consistent
with a win/win approach—seeing the possibility of a second pie or,
perhaps, a cake! It is the opposite of a zero-sum approach. This style
entails collaborating creatively to meet mutual goals.
Key behaviors that exemplify this approach are listening and
expressing your feelings and desires. If your general attitude to-
ward conflict is positive, you are likely to be able to adopt a collab-
orative style. If in Exercises 4.1 and 4.3 you tried to find mutual
satisfaction, you exhibited a collaborative style.
A strong internal locus of control and a feeling preference are
personality characteristics that serve this style well, because they
are consistent with finding a solution and considering the views of
others, respectively. Type B personalities will typically be more
comfortable with this style than will Type A personalities. Other
personality characteristics helpful in developing this style include
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
64 Chapter 4

high emotional stability and a high need for achievement, provided
that they are not combined with a high level of competitiveness.
A high need for social power is also naturally consistent with a
collaborative style.

DISTRIBUTION VERSUS INTEGRATION
Conflict approaches and negotiation styles may also be understood
in the context of distribution and integration. Distribution is allocat-
ing limited resources or limited benefits. Integration is to remove lim-
itations. They may be best understood by examining the underlying
perspective of each. A distributive style incorporates an underlying
view that needs and goals of the parties are incompatible. An inte-
grative style incorporates an underlying view that needs and goals of
the parties are different. Perhaps both parties do not want to share the
pie. Perhaps one party prefers cake. The first views the glass as half
empty, while the latter views the glass as half full. An integrative style
entails open thinking that facilitates finding mutual satisfaction.
Competition and compromising negotiation styles are distribu-
tive in nature. Collaborative negotiation is integrative. Integration
is more difficult than competing or compromising. Integration
requires an open mind and some creativity.

ANALYZING ASSESSMENT RESULTS
In Exercise 4.2, which includes the Negotiation Style Assessment In-
strument, the style designations represent the four major styles
discussed. The letter A is avoidance; the letter C is competitive;
the letters AC designate accommodating/compromising; and the
letters CC designate cooperative/collaborative.
Review the scores for A, C, AC, and CC on the assessment in-
strument relative to each other. If you find that your highest score
across all five assessments is consistently one type, that style repre-
sents your primary or dominant negotiation style. If your high
score varies among the five assessments, the results indicate that
you use different styles with different persons or in different areas
of your life.
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Negotiation Style 65

In each case, analyze why you use a particular approach. There
may indeed be sound reasons for variations across assessments.
Relative values and goals often affect choice of appropriate style.
Prior experiences and behavior modeled by significant others
also impact negotiation style tendencies. Evaluate how your family
history, your family’s approach to conflict, and your work experi-
ences compare with the results of your assessments.
A frequent use of avoidance or compromise may also stem from
unassertiveness. In a different way, a competitive style is also
unassertive.
Now review your learning thus far and complete the profile
form presented in Exhibit 4-2. The form provides a place to sum-
marize your assessments from all of the preceding exercises in this
chapter, as well as to record a few related personality factors noted
in the previous sections of this chapter.

CHOOSING THE APPROPRIATE STYLE
Often all four styles will be used within one negotiation. In complex
KEY POINT
matters containing many issues, you may compromise on certain
There is no single
pieces while using collaboration as your primary style to satisfy the
negotiation style
primary, or overall, needs and wants of both parties. There may be that is most
some issues not important in the overall goal that are too hot to ne- appropriate
gotiate and that you will, therefore, avoid. There are, however, rel- across every
negotiation.
atively few situations for which the competitive style would be the
best choice. The collaborative style is usually the most effective
choice. We use contingency theory to aid in the choice of style in the
next section of this chapter.
Avoiding may be most effective when emotions are high or
when the matter in conflict is trivial or of low value relative to the
likely cost of engaging the other person. If, for example, your boss
has said to you that if you say one more word you will be fired,
avoidance may be the appropriate choice! The problem with avoid-
ance is that, by definition, there will be no resolution or agreement.
A competitive style may be appropriate in an emergency, partic-
ularly if you have special expertise that will save others from harm.
This style may also be appropriate when there is no relationship be-
tween the parties and you are aware that the other party is clearly
competing. An example would be buying an automobile. Some-
times a competitive style is expected and is the only realistic option.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
66 Chapter 4

EXHIBIT 4-2
Profile of Negotiating Style Assessment
In exercise 4.1, the Free Money Exercise, my attitude and/or behavior were
Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating/compromising ___ Collaborative ___
In situation 2, my attitude and/or behavior were
Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating/compromising ___ Collaborative ___
In exercise 4.3, A Game, my attitude and behavior were
Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating/compromising ___ Collaborative ___
My dominant style assessment was
In general: Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating ___ Collaborative ___
In business: Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating ___ Collaborative ___
In social setting: Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating ___ Collaborative ___
In family: Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating ___ Collaborative ___
With a stranger: Avoidant ___ Competitive ___ Accommodating ___ Collaborative ___
External ___A AC Internal ___CC
My locus of control is distinctly
High ___AC
My need for affiliation is Moderate or Low ___
High ___C
My Type A competitiveness is Moderate or Low ___
C
My need for personal power is High ___ Moderate or Low ___
High ___CC
My need for social power is Moderate or Low ___
High ___C
My need for achievement is Moderate or Low ___
High ___CC Moderate or Low ___C
My emotional stability is
High ___CC
My creativity is Moderate or Low ___
Yes ___CC
I have a feeling preference. No ___

A
May relate to avoidance style
C
May relate to compromise style
AC
May relate to collaborative style
CC
May relate to competitive style
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Negotiation Style 67

Accommodating, or compromising, sometimes is the best
option presented. If no better option is available and a nonnegoti-
ated option is not better, then compromising is appropriate. This
style may also be appropriate when the relationship between the
parties is more important than the issues. As noted earlier, it is also
sound practice to hold a compromise position as a next-to-best last
resort.
There is rarely a case for which collaboration is not the most ef-
fective style. The difficulty with collaboration is that it requires the
most creativity and the most effort. Furthermore, for some people,
it will feel out of character.
Your natural negotiation style is strongly influenced by your
view of conflict and your personality. If you see negotiation as con-
flict, see conflict as negative, and score relatively high on Type A
competitiveness, for example, you may engage unwittingly in
competitive and avoidant styles. The goal is to understand your
tendencies and develop your personal style.
As you completed the assessment instrument presented in
Exercise 4.2, you may have found that your style varies from person
to person or situation to situation. This may be the result of person-
ality tendencies and habit or conscious choice. We discuss later how
to make a conscious, effective choice consistent with your person-
ality and temperament.

CONTINGENCY THEORY
Contingency theory is a term used to refer to a broad base of
literature that addresses contextual factors influencing organization
structure and management. It is, however, helpful in analyzing
negotiation styles and strategies. Just as in organizational manage-
ment, negotiation entails a myriad of factors—contextual, situa-
tional, factual, and interpersonal. The appropriate strategy, style,
and tactics are contingent on the mix of those factors.
Also consistent with contingency theory is the notion of anticipat-
ing change and adapting to change. Such is the case with negotiation.
While it is necessary to plan, it is critical to remain flexible and to un-
derstand how to react to unanticipated factors. Flexibility will feel nat-
ural to those with a perceiving preference. Those with a judging
preference are likely to be more resistant to flexibility. The contingency
analysis of negotiation is summarized in the following section.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
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68 Chapter 4

DEVELOPING EFFECTIVE STYLES
Using the appropriate option requires knowledge and develop-
ment of self and evaluative thought regarding the particular people
and circumstances involved. Two vignettes follow for your practice
in evaluating style choice.

PRACTICE
Retrospective Vignette 1
Think of an occasion when someone interacted with you in a com-
petitive manner. Try to reconstruct the sequence of events, conversa-
tion, and emotions. Was the style appropriate in the circumstances?
What happened? Was any common ground found? Were additional
issues discovered? Did you give the person what he or she wanted?
Was the style effective in solving a problem? What effect was there on
the relationship?
Retrospective Vignette 2
Think of another occasion when you interacted with someone in a
competitive manner. Again, try to reconstruct the entire scene. How
did it go? Was your style appropriate? Did you get what you wanted?
Was another style more appropriate on retrospection?

LEARNING CREATIVITY
It is worth noting again that the collaborative style is most often the
best choice, particularly in the long term. Personal characteristics
conducive to a collaborate approach include high emotional stabil-
ity, high need for social power, high internal locus of control, a feel-
ing preference, and creativity. It is possible to develop any behavior
characteristic including emotional stability and creativity.
Those with an intuitive preference, as well as assimilators and
divergers, may find it easier to tackle building creativity. Among the
things you can do to increase your creativity are to work cryp-
tograms or to develop them. You may also build your creativity by
challenging your assumptions every day. Look for different mean-
ings in old things and places. As you review your interpersonal in-
teractions and prior negotiations, consider what you might have
done differently. Evaluate the effectiveness of your course of action.
Be open. Be optimistic.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Negotiation Style 69

DYNAMIC INTERACTION AMONG PERSONALITY, INTERESTS,
GOALS, CONTEXT, AND OTHERS
The optimum negotiation strategy will be determined by the dy-
namic interaction of each party’s unique personality, style of interac-
tion, temperament, perception of the other’s style and temperament,
perception of the issues in conflict, culture, values, needs, goals,
powers, time constraints, expertise, and preparation. The first two
have been addressed in this and the prior two chapters. The other
items are addressed in later chapters. Your unique personality
pervades each of these items. Your self-knowledge will aid you in
developing alternative styles as well as in using your natural style
to its optimum. Creativity will always help you to find a mutually
satisfying agreement.

Performance Checklist

✓ The four major negotiation styles are avoiding, competing,
accommodating/compromising, and cooperating/collaborating.
Competing and compromising are distributive in nature, and
collaborating is integrative.
✓ Personality affects an individual’s comfort with particular
styles. The personal attributes of emotional stability, internal
locus of control, feeling preference, and creativity are particu-
larly helpful in collaborative negotiation. An external locus of
control may be associated with the avoidance style. High
needs for personal power and achievement as well as high
Machiavellianism and low emotional stability may be associ-
ated with a competitive style. High need for affiliation and ex-
ternal locus of control may be associated with a compromising
style.
✓ Most individuals have a natural or habitual predominant style.
Your personal assessment done in Exercise 4.2 should demon-
strate your predominant style.
✓ Each of the four styles is appropriate at times. The choice de-
pends upon relative interests, goals, values, and personality
fit. The collaborative style is usually most effective.
✓ Practicing applying your learning from this chapter is a step
toward developing effective negotiation strategies.
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70

“If I knew you and you
knew me,
If both of us could
clearly see,
PERFORMANCE COMPETENCIES FOR THIS CHAPTER
And with an inner
sight divine
The meaning of your To learn how your personality affects your negotiating
●
heart and mine,
temperament
I’m sure that we would
differ less, To learn the four key negotiating temperaments
●
And clasp our hands in
To identify behavioral expectations associated with each
●
friendliness,
negotiating temperament
Our thoughts would
pleasantly agree
To assess your unique negotiating temperament
●
If I knew you and you
knew me.”
Nixon Waterman

72
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Key Negotiating Temperaments 73

A person’s negotiating success depends upon an accurate under-
standing and use of his/her own unique personality type and style
of interaction as well as an accurate perception and understanding
of the other’s personality and style. This chapter discusses combi-
nations of particular personality characteristics that combine into
four major negotiation temperaments. We discuss how personality
and temperament differences present challenges in the negotiation
process and how to recognize behavior characteristics of the four
major temperaments. Tips on communicating with the various tem-
peraments are included elsewhere in this book.

CATEGORIZING PERSONALITIES
At first it may seem inconsistent to say that we are each unique
while at the same time to say that we can identify personality types.
To be certain, each of us is a unique package of traits, characteris-
tics, experiences, and perspectives. Further, there are no absolutes
in the facets used here. We focus on specific facets of personality
that, in combination with each other, can be understood as an indi-
vidual’s negotiation temperament. The temperaments described
here are not to be interpreted as descriptive of an individual’s entire
personality.
Everyone possesses and exhibits each facet from time to time
and to some extent. Preferences may also change with environment,
effort, and maturity. People may utilize various traits according to
need and circumstances. Caution is advised in making sweeping or
immutable generalizations of people. Nonetheless, much complex-
ity and diversity can be understood by studying and understand-
ing basic interaction temperaments. Those temperaments reflect a
core of characteristics that affect perceptions and behavior. Even
though no two people are precisely the same, that core regularly
presents itself in human interaction.
Whether we like to admit it or not, we categorize people
regularly—both strangers and those we know. Expressions such as
“slow,” “bigmouthed,” “uptight,” “laid-back,” “control freak,” to
name a few, may sound familiar. Perhaps the most interesting
aspect of categorizing people is that our categorization of others is
affected by and reflects on who we are. In fact, we are most likely to
label those most different from us.
Often, we label people quickly. We also label people based upon
accumulated experience with them. We all come to know what to
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
74 Chapter 5

expect from people with whom we often interact, and we conduct
ourselves accordingly in an effort to maximize our satisfaction and
happiness. In the negotiating arena, we must do the same thing;
however, at least in the formal setting or in negotiating with some-
one we just met, we are not afforded the time to accumulate expe-
rience with that person. Rather, at the negotiating table we must
quickly recognize and adapt to the personality with whom we
must deal. Knowledge of personality and the dimensions of human
behavior inherent in temperament provides the power to interact
effectively.
Personality typing, or labeling, is not negative. There are no
good or bad personality types.1 Typecasting is a method to celebrate
“. . . Let people be
and creatively use differences between people. In fact, typecasting
different.”
removes negative assumptions and attitudes, replacing them with
David Grayson
a constructive understanding, thereby enhancing communication.
Thus, it enables one to resist the tendency to view certain behavior
of others as intentionally personal or offensive. Increased knowl-
edge and understanding help us to control our own behavior so that
we may reach our negotiation goal.

FOUR MAIN ALTERNATIVE PREFERENCES
According to psychological theory—most preeminently Carl Jung,
we each possess preferences in four key areas of personality.2
Those areas describe our personal source of energy—extroversion/
introversion, the way we take in information—sensing/intuiting, the
way we process information—thinking/feeling, and the way we
structure and interact with the outside world—judging/perceiving.
The possible combinations of those four preferences create sixteen
personality types.3 Fortunately, we can condense the task here to un-
derstanding how to recognize two preference areas, or four combi-
nations, in others and how to deal with four key negotiating
temperaments.
Our personal source of energy is easily kept secret from those
who do not know us well. Our way of thinking, likewise, is difficult

1
All types of pathologies and personality disorders are excluded from the discussion here.
2
Chapter 2 provides explanation of each facet of personality addressed here.
3
Jung’s original theory (1968) described extroversion and introversion so profoundly differ-
ent from each other as to analyze each of the other preference areas under the umbrellas of
extroversion and introversion. Thus, Jung analyzed eighteen personality types.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Key Negotiating Temperaments 75

for others to assess. While extroverts and introverts often experi-
ence communication difficulties that are discussed in chapter 6,
those two areas of personality are not critical in identifying primary
negotiating temperaments of others. However, your level of extro-
version or introversion, as well as your preference for thinking or
feeling, will help in understanding your own behavior. Here we
look at the second and fourth preference areas.
The way we take in information and the way we interact with
the outside world are evident in key negotiating temperaments. It
can become fairly easy to identify another’s preference for taking
in information. The way we interact with our outside world is
the most difficult preference to hide from others. In this chapter
we look at the four combinations of sensing/intuiting (S/N) and
judging/perceiving (J/P) and how they present themselves in
negotiation. You will learn how to identify those preferences and
how to improve your negotiating skill with that knowledge.

PERCEIVING OTHERS
Perception is a process of active participation. Individuals select KEY TERM
and organize stimuli differently and categorize and interpret differ- Perception
ently. We discuss perception and communication more fully in is the selection
and organization
other chapters. Here we briefly touch on differences in selecting
of stimuli.
stimuli. Sensors prefer precision and detail, while intuitors prefer
abstraction and generality. Thus, they see and perceive differently.
A sensor would see trees where an intuitor would see a forest.
What is sometimes viewed as an offensive or difficult behavior
is merely a reflection of a personality comprised of components op-
posite to one’s own. Sensors and intuitors see different things, and
judgers and perceivers approach the world and interact in different
ways. Judgers reveal their position and opinions while perceivers
do not. Judgers anticipate and expect decisions while perceivers de-
fer decisions. Abstraction and distraction to one are reflection and
interrelating to another. While one responds to approaching dead-
lines (judger), another sees no date or end at all (perceiver). Annoy-
ing detail to one (an intuitor) is the tangible substance of importance
to another (a sensor). What is justice to one (a thinker) is relative and
subjective to another (a feeler).
We tend to expect others to be like us. Our expectations affect
our perceptions, and our perceptions affect interpretation and as-
signment of meaning. Attempts to communicate without recogniz-
ing these differences can lead to frustration and even anger. We tend
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
76 Chapter 5

to take offense when someone does not act as we expect. Under-
standing our opposites will change our expectations of others and
enhance communication. To be effective in negotiation, you must
recognize and relate to people who see the world through lenses
different from your own, who gather and process information in a
manner different from your own, and whose values and needs are
different from your own.

BEHAVIOR EXPECTATIONS
Research has demonstrated that one or two key traits are most de-
terminative of how a person interacts with others. These character-
istics of interaction have been referred to as temperament.4
The single most important trait affecting interpersonal interac-
tion is how a person takes in information. We regularly hear ex-
pressions of the communication difficulty presented by conflicting
traits. For example, how often have you said, “I don’t know where
you’re coming from”? If two people are not “reading off the same
page,” how can they have a meaningful discussion or come to
agreement? Therefore, it is most helpful to know whether a person
is a sensor or an intuitor. The other of the two key traits most rele-
vant to negotiation interaction is how a person relates to the world,
or his or her lifestyle orientation—the judger versus perceiver
preference.
In negotiation, before agreement we need a meeting of the
minds. We must know what each side has communicated. We must
ensure that we are working on the same issues, and we must relate
our positions and decisions to each other in a way that will be un-
derstood. Only then may there be agreement.
The more we know about the other preferences and other aspects
of personality, the better will be our ability to be effective. It is noted
that the four negotiating temperaments we discuss do not fully de-
scribe all human temperaments because the interplay of the other two
preference categories and other characteristics have significant effect
on an individual’s total personality and temperament. Nevertheless,
a closer look at the two key preference categories provides a great deal
of information for negotiation effectiveness.

4
Other behaviorists and psychologists have analyzed personality traits in terms of tempera-
ments (see, e.g., Keirsey and Bates 1978). The organization and analysis here differ from the
general literature on temperaments.
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Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Key Negotiating Temperaments 77

FOUR KEY NEGOTIATING TEMPERAMENTS
The sections that follow present profiles of four negotiating tem-
peraments, how to recognize them, how they are typically per-
ceived, and what behavior to expect from each. If you can develop
your knowledge as well as your listening and observation skills ad-
equately to recognize one or two of the key preferences in others,
you will be able to interact more effectively in the negotiation
process.

HARMONIZER (PACIFIER)
The harmonizer is the intuitive-perceiving (N/P) combination. The
harmonizer sees the big picture and approaches problems with a
broad perspective, organizing information into concepts and theo-
• Harmonizer
ries. Harmonizers have a tendency to discuss multiple issues to- (pacifier)
gether or move freely from one to another, because they see the
interrelatedness of matters in their search for meaning and a grand
scheme.
It is nearly impossible to get the harmonizer to focus on details,
unless you can appeal to his or her need for harmony or elevate the
details to an adequate level of importance in the grand scheme. It is
difficult to disagree with the harmonizer due to his or her usually
excellent persuasive ability and ability to generate creative alterna-
tives. It is also tough to pressure harmonizers, because they tend to
defer decisions and are not pressured by time deadlines. It is usu-
ally possible to distract a harmonizer and move to a different issue
when something is moving in the wrong direction.
The harmonizer shares perceptions without making or looking
for judgment. Miscommunication can occur if these perceptions are
considered as decisions. Many harmonizers openly demonstrate
their concern for others and may even take criticism personally.
Others appear more aloof.
The best way to get along with a harmonizer is to show appre-
ciation for his or her creative concepts and alternatives and to pro-
pose an equally broad alternative theory. Harmonizers are probably
most easily recognized at the negotiating table by their general, the-
oretical, and open-ended approach.
The harmonizer may, either when out of control or as an inten-
tional maneuver, become the pacifier. Once the pacifier shows up at
the negotiating table, there is not likely to be resolution.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
78 Chapter 5

CONTROLLER (BULL)
The controller is the intuitive-judging (N/J) combination. The con-
• Controller
troller, due to his or her intuitive preference (like the harmonizer),
(Bull)
also sees the big picture and approaches problems with a broad per-
spective, organizing information into concepts and theories. Al-
though as the controller takes in information he or she sees the
interrelatedness of matters in a search for meaning, the controller’s
need for closure causes him or her to remain focused on the topic or
task at hand rather than becoming scattered or leaving loose ends.
The controller has an organized plan and is impatient for deci-
sion and resolution. The controller is firm, decisive, and deliberate.
These negotiators thrive on structure and order, possess stubborn
resolve in the rightness of their positions, and want things their way.
Even though controlling, these individuals do not seek conflict
but seek harmony or, at least, calm. Many of them also have a desire
to help others. However, since controllers hold strong opinions,
they can become (or appear to be) argumentative.
Miscommunication or disagreements can quickly escalate with
a controller. They have a tendency to view things as fixed, right-
wrong, and black-white. In communicating with a controller, it is
best to allow time for him or her to moan in private as alternatives
are introduced. The best way to get along with a controller is to ev-
idence a desire to come to agreement. Controllers are probably most
easily recognized at the negotiating table by their sense of the big
picture combined with their resolve.
The controller, when out of control, may become the bull. Once
the bull appears, there is likely to be no resolution.

PRAGMATIST (STREET FIGHTER)
The pragmatist is the sensing-judging (S/J) combination. The prag-
• Pragmatist
(Intimidator) matist sees details, focuses on specifics, and approaches things
sequentially. Pragmatists take things literally rather than concep-
tually. They like facts and figures as well as concrete, tangible results.
They are practical, realistic, and bottom-line oriented. One is often
able to deduce their conservative financial philosophy.
Pragmatists view themselves as objective. Like the bull, they
are organized and impatient for resolution. Pragmatists are also
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Key Negotiating Temperaments 79

firm, decisive, and deliberate—possessing stubborn resolve in their
positions.
Given their difficulty in seeing the big picture, their focus on de-
tails, and their determination to be right, pragmatists can usually
see little reason for accepting alternatives or giving concessions.
Disagreements with the pragmatist can quickly escalate, and the
pragmatist can become abrasive and argumentative.
Either due to loss of control or as an intentional maneuver, the
pragmatist turned street fighter views the negotiation as a win/lose
proposition. The street fighter wants to win at all cost.
The best way to get along with the pragmatist is to utilize facts
and figures and to demonstrate a concern for the bottom line. The
best way to deal with the street fighter is to allow him or her time
to cool off. Pragmatists are relatively easy to spot by their focus on
details combined with stubborn resolve.

ACTION SEEKER (HIGH ROLLER)
The action seeker is the sensing-perceiving (S/P) combination. The • Action Seeker
action seeker sees details, looks at specifics, and approaches things (High Roller)
sequentially. Action seekers also take things literally rather than
conceptually.
Action seekers avoid both theory and planning. They are not im-
patient for resolution. Although they are able to defer decisions and
adapt to new information, they do have a strong sense of the here
and now. They are hands-on people.
Action seekers are spontaneous and action-oriented and seek
thrills and gratification. They may allow excitement to take prece-
dence over careful thought. Thus, when action seekers go out of
control, they may either win or lose big.
In communication, remember that action seekers often share
perceptions that may sound like but that are not judgments or deci-
sions. The best way to communicate with the action seeker or the
high roller (the action seeker out of control) is to utilize facts and fig-
ures and to occasionally encourage him or her to discuss personal
interests in order to tone down the runaway enthusiasm.
Since they do not thrive on order or completion, action seekers
can be easily distracted. Action seekers disdain rules, and they are
unpredictable. In addition to recognizing their detailed approach,
you can spot an action seeker by some hyperactivity.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
80 Chapter 5

OTHER INDICATIVE AND RELATED FACETS OF PERSONALITY
Due to the complexity of personality, it is helpful to consider other
facets of personality that may be related to negotiating tempera-
ment. As stated elsewhere in this book, right-brain/left-brain dom-
inance is related to learning style and to the sensing/intuiting
preference. Right-brain dominance is related to the intuiting prefer-
ence, while left-brain dominance is related to the sensing prefer-
ence. The accommodator style of learning is associated with sensing
(and with extroversion), while the assimilator style of learning is as-
sociated with intuiting (and with introversion).
There may be a similarity between a high level of conscien-
tiousness and judging preference (J) behavior. Similarly, Type A per-
sonality characteristics may exhibit themselves as similar to judging
preference (J) behavior.
Emotional stability, competitiveness, the need for power, the
need for affiliation, the need for achievement, and the other two
learning styles of converging and diverging may also relate to ne-
gotiation temperament when combined with other facets. Those
potential effects are noted in the assessment section that follows.

ASSESSING YOUR PRIMARY NEGOTIATING TEMPERAMENT
You should utilize your personality assessments completed else-
where in this book along with the preceding temperament profiles
to fully analyze your primary negotiating temperament. You may
find that you relate somewhat to more than one temperament. If
you score high in self-monitoring, you may think that you see
yourself in all four temperaments. It is important to assess your
primary, natural, negotiating temperament. It is easier and more ef-
fective to utilize what comes naturally, and it is what comes natu-
rally that takes over when we are under distress or out of control.
Knowing how you will behave is necessary to developing effective
strategies.
To find your primary temperament, focus first on the manner in
which you take in information. Consider your right-brain/left-
brain dominance, learning style, and sensing/intuiting to deter-
mine your preference. You will notice that, after such determination,
you should fit within one of two profiles. Some of the correlations
already noted may assist you and provide you with added infor-
mation about yourself.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Key Negotiating Temperaments 81

If you are a harmonizer who is also very high on the need for
affiliation or the need for social power, and low on conscientious-
ness, you should take special care to avoid becoming the pacifier in
negotiations. If you are an action seeker with low conscientiousness
or low emotional stability, take care not to become the high roller.
If you have a judging preference and also have a high need for per-
sonal power and a high level of competitiveness, you may be prone
to becoming the bull or the street fighter. You should exercise par-
ticular caution in controlling your negotiation interactions if you
also have a low level of emotional stability to add to that mixture.
If your learning style is either converging or diverging and
you are unsure of your negotiation temperament, consider three
additional facets. If you are a converger and are also high in need
for achievement, competitiveness, or conscientiousness, you may
fit the controller profile. If you are a diverging style of learner and
are also relatively low on conscientiousness and need for achieve-
ment, you may fit the action seeker profile. A form is provided in
Exhibit 5-1 to record your temperament assessment.

Performance Checklist

✓ Certain aspects of personality relate particularly to interaction
style. Preferences for taking in information and structuring the
outside world exhibit themselves in negotiating tempera-
ments. Right-brain/left-brain dominance; learning style; con-
scientiousness; Type A characteristics; emotional stability; and
needs for power, achievement, and affiliation may also relate
to temperament.
✓ The four key negotiation temperaments are the harmonizer
(pacifier), the controller (bull), the pragmatist (street fighter),
and the action seeker (high roller). The parenthetical names de-
scribe the temperament out of control.
✓ Temperament affects perceptions, interpretations, and certain
behaviors. It is possible to recognize each temperament by
paying attention to approach. Harmonizers are general and
open-ended; controllers are general and resolved; pragmatists
are specific and resolved; and action seekers are specific and
open-ended.
✓ You should record your negotiation temperament assessment
in the form provided in Exhibit 5-1 using the knowledge
gained thus far.
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
82 Chapter 5

EXHIBIT 5-1
Negotiating Temperament Assessment Form
My primary negotiating temperament is
Harmonizer ___________ Controller ___________ Pragmatist __________ Action seeker ___________
I am a harmonizer who also has
High need for affiliation ___________
High need for social power ___________
Low conscientiousness ___________
If one or more of the preceding are true, I will focus on not being a pacifier ___________
I am a controller who also has
High competitiveness ___________
High need for personal power ___________
Moderate to low emotional stability ___________
If two or more of the preceding are true, I will focus on not being a bull ___________
I am a pragmatist who also has
High competitiveness ___________
High need for personal power ___________
Moderate to low emotional stability ___________
If two or more of the preceding are true, I will focus on not being a street fighter ___________
I am an action seeker who also has
Moderate to low conscientiousness ___________
Moderate to low emotional stability ___________
If one or both of the preceding are true, I will focus on not being a high roller ___________

Key Terms, Phrases, and Concepts
Perception
Harmonizer (pacifier)
Controller (bull)
Pragmatist (street fighter)
Action Seeker (high-roller)
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
Key Negotiating Temperaments 83

Review Questions
Mark each of questions 1 and 2 as True (T) or False (F) and answer
questions 3 through 10.
T F 1. The four key negotiating temperaments reflect four possi-
ble combinations of two personality preferences.
T F 2. Understanding two personality preferences is all that is
necessary to master negotiating behavior.
3. A negotiator who moves freely from one issue to another
or discusses multiple issues together is exemplifying the
temperament of a/an ___________.
4. A negotiator who focuses on specifics and details might
be one of which two temperaments? ___________ or
___________.
5. A negotiator who likes detail and is also focused on
resolution exemplifies the temperament of a/an
___________.
6. The negotiating temperament that is likely most
unpredictable is the ___________.
7. Why are harmonizers and controllers prone to organize
information into concepts and theories? What aspects of
personality relate to such behavior?
8. What personality characteristics or traits must a
harmonizer be sure to keep in check or under control?
Why?
9. What personality characteristics or traits must an action
seeker be sure to keep under control? Why?
10. Think of a recent interaction you were party to. Imagine
yourself in the eyes of the other party. Which negotiating
temperament did you exhibit?

Case 5.1
Ventura Capital is a financier who specializes in capitalizing start-
up companies. Andy Preneur is a would-be entrepreneur. He needs
capital to start his new business. Andy and Ventura have been ne-
gotiating a potential agreement over the last few months. It seems
there is only one item unresolved. Ventura wants her investment to
remain in the company and earn a preferred dividend of 5 percent,
even if Andy no longer needs the money. Andy wants the right to
buy out Ventura’s interest at any time as long as the 5 percent return
ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.
84 Chapter 5

is paid. Role-play this case with another person. When you finish,
address the following questions.

Case Discussion Questions
1. Which of the four key temperaments was most clearly dis-
played by the other person? Identify specific comments and
behaviors to support your assessment.
2. Which of the four key temperaments do you think your com-
ments and behaviors most clearly displayed?
3. Do you agree with each other’s self and other assessments? If
not, why do you think you see the behaviors differently?

ISBN: 0-536-30290-1

Conflict Management: A Practical Guide to Developing Negotiation Strategies, by Barbara Budjac Corvette. Published by Prentice Hall. Copyright © 2007 by Pearson
Education, Inc.